Women’s viewpoint vis-à-vis their self-rated status of empowerment

Since project aims to empower local women, there is a dire need to know self-weighed status of empowerment of the women. Discussion in this sub-section deliberately serves this purpose. Respondents were asked to weigh their position or status of their empowerment compared their perceived definition of empowerment. They were allowed to weigh their status in three scales ranges from ‘poorly empowered’ to ‘medium empowered’ to ‘fully empowered.’ 

Scale of empowerment	Battambang	Banteay Meanchey	Siem Reap	TOTAL
Poorly empowered	56.3%	50.4%	45.2%	50.7%
Medium empowered	42.9%	49.6%	54.8%	49.1%
Fully empowered	0.8%	0.0%	0.0%	0.3%
TOTAL	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%	100.0%

Table above reveals that none of the respondents in Banteay Meanchey and Siem Reap province is fully empowered. A negligible number (0.8%) of women in Battambang province is fully empowered. Here full empowerment refers to the accomplishment of all perceived criteria or conditions [as stated in Section 7.2] of empowerment, particularly the ones perceived by the very women. Almost half [49.1% average] of the respondents [54.8% in Siem Reap, 49.6% in Banteay Meanchey and 42.9% in Battambang province] are medium empowered. Medium empowerment refers to medium accomplishment [full of some with combination of partial of the remaining or partial of all] of perceived conditions and criteria of empowerment. Similarly, a little bit more than half [50.7% average] of the respondents [45.2% in Siem Reap, 50.4% in Banteay Meanchey, and 56.3% in Battambang province] are poorly empowered. Poor empowerment refers to none to poor accomplishment of the perceived traits of empowerment.  

This is evident that the program aim to empower women is rationale since more than half of the women [respondents] in the target areas are poorly empowered. There is a need for proactive program interventions to empowerment women. Major barriers/obstacles of women’s empowerment. The respondents were then asked about the barriers or obstacles that matter their empowerment. They identified a variety of barriers as listed below:

• No or lack of opportunity
•  Low education
• Economic dependence
• Unawareness about their rights
•  Men are unlikely to recognize women’s equal rights
• Gender stereotypes
• Afraid of men’s power and violence
• Poor health
• Busy with household work and giving care to children and elderly members in the family
• Poverty 
• Men’s traditional gender ideology and dominance
• Lack of experience and skills

What do they identify to address for empowerment?

The respondents were asked about possible strategies and means towards their empowerment. They suggested the followings to take into account in any prospective program interventions:

• Peaceful solution of problems and disputes between men and women. This suggestion particularly refers to the situation of domestic violence. 
• Both women and men should know and respect rights of each other. This focuses on mutual respect between men and women with regard to the rights of each other.
• Provide education (literacy) to women.
• Better and improved legal intervention from law enforcing agencies. This particularly make reference to the enforcement of laws such as domestic violence law, family law, and other major national policies that exist to protect women’s rights in the family, community and the nation.
• Improve self-esteem of women. Women usually lack confidence. This happens because of their systematic sub-ordination vis-à-vis lower status. Women should be brave, confident and self-esteemed for their empowerment. 
• Interventions that develop occupational and professional development. This is particularly for economic independence of women. Women are unlikely to empower if they are economically dependent to other.   
• Use of contraception. 
• Participate and involve in meeting. Mixing with others from outside through meeting and other forms of public activities, women can be more self-eccentric and improve their understanding of personal well-being and welfare.  

Women’s knowledge and familiarity with the term of empowerment

Women respondents of this study were asked whether they have heard the term empowerment. They were then asked whether they have attended any meeting, workshop and training on women’s empowerment and rights. The purpose of asking these questions was to know their familiarity to the term empowerment. If women are not knowledgeable and familiar with the term ‘empowerment,’ it is likely that they are unaware of their empowerment and rights. 

Province	District	Women have heard the term women's empowerment (%)	Women have attended training, workshop, meeting on gender/ women's empowerment/ rights (%)
Battambang	Bovel	28%	27%
	Rattanak Mondul	31%	39%
Banteay Meanchey	Thmor Pourk	65%	23%
	Phnom Srok	42%	8%
Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	72%	4%
	Soutr Nikum	72%	18%

Percentage of women who have heard the term ‘empowerment’ is highest in Siem Reap province followed by Banteay Meanchey and Battambang province. However, almost three quarter of women in Battambang province have never heard this term. Table above also reveals the percentage of women who have attended training, meeting, workshop on gender or women’s empowerment or women’s rights by district and province. Figures of women who have attended these events are tiny with 4% as minimum (in Angkokr Thom district of Siem Reap province) and 39% as maximum (in Rattanak Mondul district in Battambang province). Since a tiny portion of the respondents has so far attended any training, workshop, meeting on gender/women’s empowerment, it is likely that they possess shallow understanding and knowledge on the term ‘empowerment.’ How do they perceive their empowerment?

There are debates about the concepts and framework of empowerment. Different feminist scholarships focus on different aspects of live and living of women as the areas of their empowerment. Since the project aims to empower local women, the study intentionally captured views of local women about their empowerment. They were asked about what empowerment means to them. The following list reveals what empowerment refers to them.

• Right to share opinion
• Access to education
• Right and access to professional career
• Right to attend meeting and other public affairs
• Right and access to meeting and other public events
• Right and unrestricted access to justice
• Equality in gender roles
• Right to manage household
• Decision-making rights
• Right to stand in election (commune council)
• Freedom of movement
• Men share in household chores
• Free and easy access to information
• Equally benefited from development project, program or community interventions
• Dignity, respect and self-esteem

The views of local women about their empowerment are not far from what feminist scholars define. They set an array of criteria and conditions of empowerment. These broadly fall into equality in decision-making (i.e., decision-making in household and community affairs), gender roles (i.e., men’s share in household chores, women’s freedom and access to outside professional work, etc.), participation (i.e., participation in meeting and public events), access to resources and benefits (i.e., benefits of projects, programs and community intervention, access to information and education, etc.) fairness (i.e., equal treatment in justice system), self-esteem/respect, freedom of movement, political representation and participation (i.e., right to stand in commune council election) etc.  Each of the conditions or criteria has its importance in relation to the forms or types of empowerment. For example, outside professional work can empower women economically with economic independence. Access to information can enable women to make informed decision. Men’s share in household chores can reduce women’s workload vis-à-vis given them more time to engage in paid work and education. Their right to stand in election can make way (through increased representation of women in decisionmaking bodies) to address needs and concerns of local women through plan, policy and programme of the respective decision-making bodies.

  

However, women can be empowered on different scale and extent depending on the criteria and conditions of empowerment they accomplish.  The more the criteria they accomplish, the better they are empowered. Then, each of the criteria of empowerment matter the accomplishment of other factors. For example, access to education can give women way to the chance of engagement in professional career or dignity and self-respect. 

Women and community level decision-making

The respondents were asked about their decision-making position and status in community affairs. Community affairs include all community-level functions and matters that are usually lead and decided by the commune councilors, village chiefs and other stakeholders. The women make decision on only 3% of community affairs compared to 42% of affairs made by only men. Women are 14 times disadvantaged then men in terms of sole decision-making in community affairs. Women’s disadvantaged position in community affairs is possibly links to their under representation in community-level decision-making bodies such as commune councilors, village chiefs etc. However, men and women jointly decide 55% of community affairs and matters. In case of joint decision-making, women play very petty roles, which are broadly reproductive in nature. For example, they arrange meeting including gathering people, preparing snacks and other entertainments and accounting and registration related jobs.  The reveals the nature of work that women jointly do in the community such as attend meeting on construction of road, school, bridge, hospital etc. in the community, financial contribution, manage pig banks, gather people in meeting, cook meal and prepare snacks for meeting participants.

Although women participate in the meeting on construction of major physical work in the village and community, their role in the meeting is still secondary and they do not play leading role in the meeting.  The underlying causes of women’s poor role in decision-making in community affairs and matters are as follows:

1. Multiple roles and too much busy to take part actively in community activities
2. They are not invited to participate in community activities from the beginning.
3.  Lack of confidence, not brave and trust on their potentials in terms of decision-making.
4.  Lack of skills, experience and knowledge to provide good decision in the meeting.
5. Illiteracy.
6. Afraid of being blamed when share ideas.
7. Discouragement and undermining women’s opinion in meeting.
8. Lack of time to attend in meeting and pre-meeting activities.
9. Prejudice among the community people, particularly among the men that women are sub-ordinate and low in capacity.
10. Restricted mobility. Women cannot move to any place in any time as such men do. 

The aforementioned factors arrest women’s potential participation and role in decision-making in community affairs and matters. Traditional gender roles, relations and values attached to women give way to these factors function.  

Women and household decision-making

The respondents were asked about some important and basic aspects of household decision-making. The Fig 3.9 reveals that in outnumber of cases (77.8%), the household decision is made jointly (by husband and wife). When compared about their absolute decision-making (Absolute decision-making refers to decision made by single person –either man or woman, husband or wife) in household affairs, men comprise higher than women (19.4% of men compared to 2.8% women). This makes the fact that men hold higher authority in household affairs. The respondents then were asked about what kinds of matters or affairs they absolutely decide for. They make decision in day-to-day affairs. These include purchase household foods, education of children, choosing of crops, especially chicken crops, contraception, attending meeting and social events, opening and running income-generating businesses/activities. Major barriers for women’s increased absolute decision-making in household affairs. Since women represent very low in absolute decision-making, they were asked about the barriers or obstacles that hinder them from their increased participation in absolute decision-making in household affairs. They identified a number of barriers, which are presented in the table below by district and province.

Barriers of women’s increased participation in absolute decision-making in household affairs

Sl	Province	District	Barriers for women in decision-making in family
1.	Battambang	Bovel	{  Husband is the breadwinner, head of the household [most]. {  Want to work outside to earn money to make decision but husband disagree.
		Rattanak Mondul	{  Husband is the breadwinner and head of household. {  Cannot go out far away from home or visit neighbors often. {  Afraid of domestic violence (argument, beating etc.). {  Need capital to run business to be independent.
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	{  Husband is the head of household, breadwinner [most]. {  Lack of knowledge compared to husband. {  Afraid of domestic violence caused from argument and bargaining. {  Cannot go far away from home.
		Phnom Srok	{  Husband is the head of the household and breadwinner. {  Cannot go far away from home. {  Lack of confidence and wrong decision. {  Poor knowledge and capacities compared to husband.
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	{  Husband is the breadwinner and head of household [most].
			{   Want to make money like husband, but lack capital to run a business.
			{   Afraid of domestic violence caused from bargaining and argument.
			{   Poor knowledge and skills compared to husband.
			{   Cannot go far away from home.
		Soutr Nikum	{  Husband is the breadwinner and head of household [most]. {   Poor knowledge and cannot compete with husband in decision-making. {   Want to work to become financially independent. But lack money and husband disagree.
			{   Afraid of making wrong decision.
			{   Cannot go far away from home.
			{   Afraid of domestic violence caused from argument and bargaining.

A number of factors or barriers make women precarious in terms of decision-making in the family. Some of these factors are socially constructed and others are economic. Husband’s bread-winning role gives them better fallback position in household decision-making and women voluntarily give up the thinking of bargaining. On the other hand, women do not have much income and they are dependent to their husband. All these are rooted to economics. 

On the other hand women give up the thinking of bargaining and arguments to avoid possible incidence of domestic violence and intra-household conflict. Women themselves undermine the value of household works that they solely do. They undermine the value of household work because there is no recognition of value of household work both at national economy and household economy. However, they think husband should be privileged in decision-making, as they are the prime breadwinners of the household. Even when they have chance to make decision, they are concerned that they might not make right decision.  They lack confidence in terms of decision-making.  

Male members’ migration and its effects on household and household members

Male members’ migration and its effects on household and household members: Male members’ out-migration affects household and its members in different and in multiple ways. Certainly, they also enjoy benefits from the remittance earned or sent by the migrant family members. The types of effects on the household members depend on the nature of work the migrant household members do in the place of destination, places of destination of their migration, relations between migrant male members and the particular household members. For example, wife of a cross-border male migrant is more susceptible to various effects compared to other household members. The effects that the household members experience in course of migration of male members are listed in be low Table.

Effects of migration of male members of households to the household and its members

Sl.	Province	District	Effects on household members
1.	Battambang	Bovel	Risk of HIV/AIDS [most], difficult to manage household, affect education of children, increase workload (female members need to do both household and field work)
		Rattanak Mondul	Difficult to manage household, risk of HIV/AIDS, affect education of children, worry about safety of household members, increase workload
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	Increase workload, risk of HIV/AIDS, difficult to manage household, affect education of children.
		Phnom Srok	Risk of HIV/AIDS, increase workload, difficult to manage household, affect education of children.
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	Risk of HIV/AIDS, increase workload, difficult to manage household, affect education of children.
		Soutr Nikum	Increase workload, difficult to manage household, risk of HIV/AIDS, affect education of children.

The unsafe sexual activity of the migrant members brings higher chance of HIV/AIDS infection to the female partners upon their arrival from migration. It can also transfer HIV/AIDS to the newborn baby. The household members, including the children have to manage both household work and agricultural work during the absence of the male members. It increases workload of female members [they have to do both household and productive work] an education of school-going children. School going children have to do agricultural work instead of going to school. In absence of male household head, the female members face difficulty to manage the household. They have to perform all social activities and maintain social network by themselves. 

The respondents were specifically and deliberately asked about what happens when most of the men from the village migrate to outside. They listed various effects of total migration of male members of the villages. Effects include:

1. Drop out of children from school, particularly when and if the male members migrate during the agricultural season. Children of household have to compensate the labor of the adult male members for agricultural production.
2. Need to sell land to pay the costs made (to the middle person) for migration of the male members.
3. Poor living condition and hand to mouth. This situation further aggravates when and if the migrant male members return with poor or no remittance.
4.  Increase workload of female members for longer period.
5.  None to look after the sick family members and bring to hospital/doctor for treatment
6. Experience stigma and criticism by neighbors and relatives if the migration prolongs and the migrant family member does not make communication.
7. Concern about own safety in the village.
8. Worry about infection of HIV/AIDS to the migrant.
9. Vulnerable of sexual abuse and exploitation if the male member is absent in the family for longer time.

Women’s likeness of migration and related issues. The respondents were asked whether they are likely to migrate (both international and local migration) to other places. Almost 70% of the women interviewed in this study are likely or interested to migrate to other places. They are interested or likely to make local and international migration. Table below shows the places where they want to migrate.

Places of destination where the women are likely or interested to migrate

Sl.	Province	District	Places interested for migration
1.	Battambang	Bovel	Thailand [most], Battambang, Poi Pet
		Rattanak Mondul	Thailand, Phnom Penh
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	Thailand [most], Poi Pet
		Phnom Srok	Thailand [most].
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	Thailand, Battambang, Poi Pet, Siem Reap town.
		Soutr Nikum	Siem Reap town, Phnom Penh, Thailand.

The table reveals that the majority of the women in the villages covered in this study are likely to make international migration to the neighboring country –Thailand. This also indicates that they are highly vulnerable to trafficking. They are interested to do a variety of works such as construction work [most], laborer, housemaid, waitress in Karaoke restaurant and hotel and factory (garment) work in the places of destination. 

Then they were asked about the problems they predict to experience if they migrate. Some of the predicted problems are common with the ones experienced by the male migrants of their villages as discussed in Section 3.6.1. The additional problems include linguistic problems (in case of international migration) to communicate with the people in destination, difficulty in getting job, sexual exploitation and forced prostitution and occupational hazards including accidents. Women migrants, particularly the ones who are low educated and do not know anyone in the place of destination are highly vulnerable to all forms of workers’ rights including sexual exploitation.  

 Why are particular women unlikely to migrate? As shown in Fig 3.8 almost 31% respondent’s women are unlikely to migrate either international or local. They were asked why they are unlikely to migrate. They identified various reasons of not being interested for migration.

Reasons of not migration of some particular women

Sl.	Province	District	Places interested for migration
1.	Battambang	Bovel	{  Insecurity [most]  {  Restriction of husband and other family members {  Social stigma {  Lack of support network (who can provide information and make financial arrangement to make the journey) {  Dependents in the family {  They have their own business and establishment {  None to look after household
		Rattanak Mondul	{  Insecurity [most] {  They have their own business {  Dependents in the family {  Social stigma {  Lack of support network (who can provide information and support)
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	{  Insecurity {  Sickness and poor physical health {  Dependents in the family {  Husband and family members do not allow {  They have their own business
		Phnom Srok	{  Insecurity [most] {  Dependents in the family {  None to look after family {  Restriction from husband and other family members {  Poor physical health
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	{  Insecurity [most] {  Restriction from husband and other family members {  Social stigma {  None to look after family {  Poor physical health {  Lack of support network {  They have their own business
		Soutr Nikum	{  Insecurity {  Poor physical health {  Restriction from husband and other family members {  Head of the household (that’s why cannot move to another place) {  None to look after family {  Social stigma {  Lack of support network {  Dependents in the family

Reasons of not being interested for migration are insecurity, restriction of husband and other family members, social stigma, lack of support network (who can provide information about place of migration and arrange payments for travel etc.), lack of members who can manage and take care the household in their absence, dependents in the family, and poor health are prominent. Sense of insecurity is the most reasoned factor makes a good proportion of women of not being interested for migration. Women of this category are concerned that they might be in risk of sexual and physical insecurity both on the way to and in place of migration. They also fear that police might arrest them, particularly in case of international migration. There is a widespread consensus among the traditional people that women migrants are not ideal women and they are involved in immoral and indecent occupations in the place of destination. With the given social stigma –i.e., value and attitudes to female migrants, many women voluntarily give up the idea of migration. Women’s role as household manager also restricts their choice of migration. Women in this study mentioned that they cannot think for migration because of dependents in the family. There is none in the family who can look after them if they migrate.