Male members’ migration and its effects on household and household members

Male members’ migration and its effects on household and household members: Male members’ out-migration affects household and its members in different and in multiple ways. Certainly, they also enjoy benefits from the remittance earned or sent by the migrant family members. The types of effects on the household members depend on the nature of work the migrant household members do in the place of destination, places of destination of their migration, relations between migrant male members and the particular household members. For example, wife of a cross-border male migrant is more susceptible to various effects compared to other household members. The effects that the household members experience in course of migration of male members are listed in be low Table.

Effects of migration of male members of households to the household and its members

Sl.	Province	District	Effects on household members
1.	Battambang	Bovel	Risk of HIV/AIDS [most], difficult to manage household, affect education of children, increase workload (female members need to do both household and field work)
		Rattanak Mondul	Difficult to manage household, risk of HIV/AIDS, affect education of children, worry about safety of household members, increase workload
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	Increase workload, risk of HIV/AIDS, difficult to manage household, affect education of children.
		Phnom Srok	Risk of HIV/AIDS, increase workload, difficult to manage household, affect education of children.
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	Risk of HIV/AIDS, increase workload, difficult to manage household, affect education of children.
		Soutr Nikum	Increase workload, difficult to manage household, risk of HIV/AIDS, affect education of children.

The unsafe sexual activity of the migrant members brings higher chance of HIV/AIDS infection to the female partners upon their arrival from migration. It can also transfer HIV/AIDS to the newborn baby. The household members, including the children have to manage both household work and agricultural work during the absence of the male members. It increases workload of female members [they have to do both household and productive work] an education of school-going children. School going children have to do agricultural work instead of going to school. In absence of male household head, the female members face difficulty to manage the household. They have to perform all social activities and maintain social network by themselves. 

The respondents were specifically and deliberately asked about what happens when most of the men from the village migrate to outside. They listed various effects of total migration of male members of the villages. Effects include:

1. Drop out of children from school, particularly when and if the male members migrate during the agricultural season. Children of household have to compensate the labor of the adult male members for agricultural production.
2. Need to sell land to pay the costs made (to the middle person) for migration of the male members.
3. Poor living condition and hand to mouth. This situation further aggravates when and if the migrant male members return with poor or no remittance.
4.  Increase workload of female members for longer period.
5.  None to look after the sick family members and bring to hospital/doctor for treatment
6. Experience stigma and criticism by neighbors and relatives if the migration prolongs and the migrant family member does not make communication.
7. Concern about own safety in the village.
8. Worry about infection of HIV/AIDS to the migrant.
9. Vulnerable of sexual abuse and exploitation if the male member is absent in the family for longer time.

Women’s likeness of migration and related issues. The respondents were asked whether they are likely to migrate (both international and local migration) to other places. Almost 70% of the women interviewed in this study are likely or interested to migrate to other places. They are interested or likely to make local and international migration. Table below shows the places where they want to migrate.

Places of destination where the women are likely or interested to migrate

Sl.	Province	District	Places interested for migration
1.	Battambang	Bovel	Thailand [most], Battambang, Poi Pet
		Rattanak Mondul	Thailand, Phnom Penh
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	Thailand [most], Poi Pet
		Phnom Srok	Thailand [most].
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	Thailand, Battambang, Poi Pet, Siem Reap town.
		Soutr Nikum	Siem Reap town, Phnom Penh, Thailand.

The table reveals that the majority of the women in the villages covered in this study are likely to make international migration to the neighboring country –Thailand. This also indicates that they are highly vulnerable to trafficking. They are interested to do a variety of works such as construction work [most], laborer, housemaid, waitress in Karaoke restaurant and hotel and factory (garment) work in the places of destination. 

Then they were asked about the problems they predict to experience if they migrate. Some of the predicted problems are common with the ones experienced by the male migrants of their villages as discussed in Section 3.6.1. The additional problems include linguistic problems (in case of international migration) to communicate with the people in destination, difficulty in getting job, sexual exploitation and forced prostitution and occupational hazards including accidents. Women migrants, particularly the ones who are low educated and do not know anyone in the place of destination are highly vulnerable to all forms of workers’ rights including sexual exploitation.  

 Why are particular women unlikely to migrate? As shown in Fig 3.8 almost 31% respondent’s women are unlikely to migrate either international or local. They were asked why they are unlikely to migrate. They identified various reasons of not being interested for migration.

Reasons of not migration of some particular women

Sl.	Province	District	Places interested for migration
1.	Battambang	Bovel	{  Insecurity [most]  {  Restriction of husband and other family members {  Social stigma {  Lack of support network (who can provide information and make financial arrangement to make the journey) {  Dependents in the family {  They have their own business and establishment {  None to look after household
		Rattanak Mondul	{  Insecurity [most] {  They have their own business {  Dependents in the family {  Social stigma {  Lack of support network (who can provide information and support)
2.	Banteay Meanchey	Thmar Pouk	{  Insecurity {  Sickness and poor physical health {  Dependents in the family {  Husband and family members do not allow {  They have their own business
		Phnom Srok	{  Insecurity [most] {  Dependents in the family {  None to look after family {  Restriction from husband and other family members {  Poor physical health
3.	Siem Reap	Angkor Thom	{  Insecurity [most] {  Restriction from husband and other family members {  Social stigma {  None to look after family {  Poor physical health {  Lack of support network {  They have their own business
		Soutr Nikum	{  Insecurity {  Poor physical health {  Restriction from husband and other family members {  Head of the household (that’s why cannot move to another place) {  None to look after family {  Social stigma {  Lack of support network {  Dependents in the family

Reasons of not being interested for migration are insecurity, restriction of husband and other family members, social stigma, lack of support network (who can provide information about place of migration and arrange payments for travel etc.), lack of members who can manage and take care the household in their absence, dependents in the family, and poor health are prominent. Sense of insecurity is the most reasoned factor makes a good proportion of women of not being interested for migration. Women of this category are concerned that they might be in risk of sexual and physical insecurity both on the way to and in place of migration. They also fear that police might arrest them, particularly in case of international migration. There is a widespread consensus among the traditional people that women migrants are not ideal women and they are involved in immoral and indecent occupations in the place of destination. With the given social stigma –i.e., value and attitudes to female migrants, many women voluntarily give up the idea of migration. Women’s role as household manager also restricts their choice of migration. Women in this study mentioned that they cannot think for migration because of dependents in the family. There is none in the family who can look after them if they migrate.  

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